THE LIFE AND STORY OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT

  INTRODUCTION Alexander the Great was born at the right time, with the right genes, and the right personality. By the time he died, at ...

 INTRODUCTION

Alexander the Great was born at the right time, with the right genes, and the right personality. By the time he died, at age 33, he ruled over 2 million square miles. He never lost a battle (except one against nature). Few men have changed the world as much as he.
Taught by Aristotle, the young prince had other advantages. Through his mother,Olympias, he was descended (it is said) from Achilles. Through his murdered father,Philip II of Macedon (pronounced “Bilip” by his countrymen), he inherited a great army.
Propelled by ambition and brilliant strategy, Alexander was a military genius. Thousands of years later he was still a role model for would-be conquerors, like Napoleon Bonaparte.
Who was Alexander? What did he look like? Do any of his own writings survive? Although many of his generals lived to be old men, why did he die at such a young age? Do we have facts, or merely legends, about him?
Turns out, "the greatest legend of all was real."

LEARNING FROM ARISTOTLE

Before Alexander III (later called "The Great") was born in Pella, likely on or about July 20 in 356 B.C., the Persian Empire was the dominant power in that part of the world. Cyrus, who founded the empire, and his successors who followed, including Darius, were intent to keep their conquered lands and subjected people. (A century earlier, some of the Persian-controlled territory had been colonized by Greece.)
Philip II (Alexander's father) was also a man of military might and persuasive abilities. During his 23-year reign, he built a formidable army, subdued many Greek city-states, and established a Macedonian kingdom which provided protection for his people. Before his death, he considered invading Persia to further strengthen and solidify his country's position.
Wishing his son (then fourteen years old) to study with the best teachers available, Philip sought out Aristotle and invited him to educate Alexander. Scholars believe that Alexander's mother (who reportedly learned to read when she was middle-aged) also favored the selection of Plato's brightest pupil.
Aristotle was born in Stageira (located in the current Greek prefecture of Chalcidice [also called Halkidiki], Central Macedonia District, just north of the current village of Stagira). Not as famous then as he would become later, Aristotle had studied with Plato who had learned from Socrates.
After he arrived in Pella, Aristotle (throughout the ages regarded as one of the best thinkers who ever lived) set up his royal school at Mieza (modern-day Naoussa) wherearcheologists believe they have uncovered its remains. For the next six years, Greece's greatest mind likely taught Greece's greatest conqueror the following subjects:

Greek; Hebrew; Babylonian; Latin

The nature of the sea and the wind

The course of the stars

The life-span of the world

The revolutions of the firmament

The great teacher also showed his royal student the meaning of justice and the skills of rhetoric. And he warned him against the wiles of "loose women." (See Alexander the Great, by Robin Lane Fox, page 53 of the 1986 Penguin paperback edition.)
What kind of student was Alexander? Did he have a favorite subject - or book? If so, what was it?


THE YOUNG ALEXANDER

When he was a boy, and a man, Alexander had the same favorite book: The Iliad, byHomer. Since Olympias believed that she was descended from Achilles, her son claimed the same ancestor. It is said that Alexander's tutor, Lysimachus, gained great favor when he nicknamed his young charge "Achilles."
Aristotle, at Alexander's request, helped to prepare a special copy of The Iliad which the prince prized so highly, he kept it with him always. Even during his years of conquest he traveled with it, calling Homer's tale his "journey-book of excellence in war." Every night he slept with it, and a dagger, under his pillow.
Alexander spoke fast, walked fast, and was so short that when he conquered Persia even a stool wasn't high enough for his feet as he sat on the Persian throne. He carried his head at a slight angle and his eyes - captured by the official court sculptor Lysippus - gazed intently. Sleep was a bother for both him and Aristotle.

Of his physical features, this much seems certain:

Like his father, he was a very handsome young man. His nose, as statues and paintings stress, was straight; his forehead was prominent and his chin short but jutting; his mouth revealed emotion, and the lips were often shown curling.

Born under the sign of Leo, Alexander's images on coins depict him wearing the trademark lion-skin cap of yet another claimed ancestor, Heracles (depicted here fighting the Nemean lion). Some scholars think he wore the lion headdress in everyday life.

When Alexander was about twelve years old, one of his father's friends gave Philip a beautiful black horse named Bucephalas. Although the horse was extremely expensive - more than three times what one would normally pay at the time for a magnificent mount - Philip was distressed when he inspected the animal. Out of control, it was bucking, kicking and refusing to take commands. Philip, not anticipating what was about to happen, ordered the horse to be removed.

The king's son, however, had noticed something significant about Bucephalas. He seemed afraid of his own shadow. Taking advantage of that, Alexander soothed the horse and unlike all others, was able to ride him. Philip, it is said, wept for joy and declared that Macedonia would never keep such a prince within her own boundaries. He gave the horse to his son who rode it in nearly all of his major battles.

ALEXANDER'S HOMETOWN

What was life like in Pella, where both Alexander and his father were born? The town, and its royal sites, have been archeologically rediscovered during the past fifty years, thereby allowing us to examine the place where the future conqueror spent his youth.
Ancient Pella was connected to the sea (the Thermaic Gulf) by a navigable inlet. Because the harbor silted over long ago, however, the site is landlocked today.
Based on remains, scholars have reconstructed the royal palace. They have also unearthed other important places and artifacts:
The palace court (although scholars believe the mosaic floors are post-Alexander);

Bust of Alexander the Great, found at Pella;

Ancient pipes uncovered in modern excavations;

A Macedonian gold crown worn by royalty.

Alexander's future conquests made himself, and his people, wealthy. That wealth is reflected in today's archeological finds at the old Macedonian capital. Some of the oldest mosaics in the world have been unearthed at Pella. Among them (from a time following Alexander) are:

A mythological god (Dionysis) riding a leopard;

Two warriors (the one on the left is Alexander) fighting a lion;

A mythological centaur.

The Romans sacked Pella in 168 B.C., and took its treasury to Rome. In the first century B.C., an earthquake destroyed the town. Modern archeologists have uncovered stores, and workshops, with their goods still recognizable. Residents rebuilt the city over its ruins, thereby preserving them.

Long before the earthquake rocked Pella, however, a man-made incident rocked Philip's kingdom. It happened unexpectedly, during a time of celebration.

ASSASSINATION OF PHILIP II

In the summer of 336 B.C., Philip II was home in Macedonia. His conquests had beenmany (like Mount Pangeon which provided a source of gold to fund Philip's expeditions). Towns had been named after him (like Philippi, later made famous when Paul the apostle preached there). But the once-handsome man now carried the scars of war. After two decades of fighting, his immediately noticeable injury was a missing eye.

Alexander (who had a previous falling-out with his father) was also at the royal palace that summer day since his family was celebrating both a wedding and Philip's upcoming invasion of Asia. Philip, known as a "man whose like had never been seen in Europe," had given his daughter (Cleopatra) in marriage to an ally (King Alexander of Epirus).

Philip himself had married - again - not long before. He had already divorced Olympias, Alexander's mother (who was from Epirus, not Macedonia). The king's new wife Eurydice (his seventh, also called Cleopatra) was a young Macedonian, with whom Philip had a young daughter (named Europe) and an infant son (named Caranus, after the founder of the Macedonian royal dynasty).

Angered by her own denigration, Olympias was also concerned about the succession of Alexander. In Macedonia, it was never certain that the oldest son would become king. And Alexander, unlike Caranus, was not a full-blooded Macedonian.

Although it may not have disturbed Philip, there is another interesting piece of Macedonian history to consider. None of Philip's predecessors had died in his own bed. Since the king's power was purely personal, his authority was as absolute as he could make it.

Homer's statement, made hundreds of years before, still applied: "Rule by might." In Homer's world, heroes strive for glory since death is inescapable. And in Philip's world, a loss of face could lead to a loss of title - or worse.

As part of the celebrations, Philip ordered his bodyguards to leave him for a time. (Philip was a leader, not a tyrant, and it would have sent the wrong signal for him to attend a public celebration, in the royal theater, surrounded by armed men.) Pausanias, one of Philip's guards, disobeyed those orders and lingered behind.

Unnoticed, Pausanias clutched a Celtic dagger which he plunged into Philip, killing him. Recent excavations have revealed the probable spot in the theater where Philip was stabbed.

To this day, no one really knows who plotted Philip's murder. Many scholars point to Olympias who surely had motive. Alexander was soon cleared as a suspect, although scholars have wondered about his involvement. The prince acted quickly, however, to secure his power base and to make sure he would become his father's successor.

More than 2,300 years later - in one of the most stunning archeological achievements of the 20th century - a tomb, believed to be Philip's, was rediscovered. Left untouched for thousands of years, its contents were nothing short of astonishing.

DISCOVERY OF PHILIP'S TOMB

Before Pella became the royal capital, the ancient town of Aigai had served that purpose. Since at least 1850, scholars believed the tranquil hills of nearby Vergina contained thegraves or tombs (you need Real Player for this video link) of Macedonian royalty.

In 1977, the late Greek archeologist, Manolis Andronikos, working in Vergina (also spelled Verghina) discovered several tombs. Two had never been plundered. One of those (believed, at the time, to be Philip's) contained a gold casket (called a larnax) with a royal Macedonian star burst on its cover. Inside the casket were cremated remains.

Although there is scholarly disagreement, Andronikos (who published a book with numerous pictures of his findings) and his colleagues believed those cremated remains were of Alexander's father, Philip II. A skull - believed, by some, to be Philip's - was also recovered.

The Great Tumulus Museum at Vergina, site of ongoing excavations (like the town'sAcropolis), possesses the golden casket, a recovered bust of Philip II, and many artifacts. This video (you need Real Player to watch it) will enlighten you about some of the treasures found in Philip's grave.

Based on their discoveries, scholars have reconstructed the royal palace where Philip and Alexander lived. Archeologists have turned over their incredible finds to Greek museums. Thanks to their generosity, the public can view these treasures on-line.

ROYAL TREASURES

With reconstructions, cutaways and pictures of the Vergina tombs and their contents, we can gain some understanding of what life was like during the time of Alexander the Great. For descriptive purposes only, we refer to the tomb believed by some (but not all) to be "Philip's tomb."
Tomb under excavation.
Cutaway of Philip's tomb.
Interior door of tomb during excavation. Tombs of Macedonian royalty were richly decorated. (This is a Real Player video link.)
Facade of Philip's tomb during excavation with detail of the painted top (called a geison).
Excavated tomb, with the sky above, has a frieze across the top. Macedonians, like Philip, were great hunters. The painting across the top of the tomb depicts hunting scenes.
West side of tomb with sarcophagus.
Small sarcophagus with gold larnax inside.
The gold larnax containing textiles, gold, ashes and bones.
Cloth and gold inside the larnax.
Reconstruction of wooden kline.
Left and right ends of kline in Bella Mound.
Sword hilt.
Large iron sword found in Philip's tomb.
Iron cuirass, where it was found and after it was cleaned.
Chryselephantine shield, before and after reconstruction.
Silver and bronze banquet vessels as rediscovered on the tomb's north wall.
Gorytos and greaves in situ. (A "gorytos" [click here for its correct pronunciation] is a quiver-and-bow case. The scene on the case depicts the capture of a city. A greave is a piece of soldier's armor worn over the shin and calf between the knee and ankle.)

Even as he mourned his father's death, Alexander moved quickly to succeed him. Historyrecords that he was ruthless in those endeavors.

ALEXANDER'S BEQUEST

For 150 years before Alexander's birth, the city-states of mainland Greece fought off-and-on with each other and with foreigners. At the time, towns along the eastern AegeanSea (known then as Asia Minor and today as Turkey) were also Greek.
Those Greek Asia Minor cities (like Ephesus) were frequently dominated by non-Greek powers. They once owed their allegiance to the Kingdom of Lydia (anchored in its capital of Sardis where a temple to Artemis [Diana] was fourth largest in the ancient world). Thereafter, they were run by Persia (today's Iran) after Lydia was overwhelmed by the meteoric rise of Persia as an imperial power.
In 499 B.C., when Greek cities in Asia Minor rebelled against Persian control, forces from the Greek mainland came to their aid. Darius (in 490) and Xerxes (in 480 B.C.), retaliating against the helpers, launched two unsuccessful invasions. Persian defeats meant the mainland was temporarily secure from foreigners, but prominent Greek cities soon relapsed into hostilities between themselves. The long years of fighting between Sparta and Athens (known as the Peloponnesian War) exhausted everyone.

Shifting loyalties continued and, by 386 B.C., Athens and Sparta conceded Persian dominion over the Greek cities of mainland Asia Minor in exchange for recognition of their own claims. That peace did not last long either, with endless acts of violence and destruction continuing even when patriotic motives were not obvious.
Macedonia had been largely exempt from this miserable state of affairs. Spared from Greco-Persian political wrangling, Macedonia was not part of the treaty which forfeited the Greek cities of Asia Minor. So when Philip II, who had been acting as regent in Macedon, made himself king in 358 B.C., he and his highly trained standing army ultimately accomplished what the Greeks needed but could not achieve. Philip imposed peace.
Summoning the Greek city-states to a conference in Corinth, Philip emerged as leader of a Greek federation which would wage an offensive against Persia. Before he could enact his plans of war, however, Philip was murdered in 336.

Executing his father's assassin without asking questions, and having anyone else who threatened his position as Philip's heir killed as well, Alexander - at age 20 - became king of Macedonia. Anyone who thought he was not up to the job would soon learn otherwise.

ALEXANDER'S EARLY CONQUESTS

It is often said that Alexander's army made him great - but his murdered father, Philip of Macedon, made the army great. Using professional soldiers, not a citizen-based militia, Philip created different types of military units which gave him diversified strength. Infantry, cavalry, foot soldiers who employed extra-long spears (called a sarissa), and elite foot guardsmen (called hypaspists) all made the Macedonian army a formidable fighting machine.
Alexander, who had fought with his father against Athens in the Battle of Chaeronea, thus inherited a standing army which employed unusual instruments of war and unique battle formations.
Typical Macedonian battle formation under Philip and Alexander.

Typical "hammer and anvil" tactics of the Macedonian army under Philip and Alexander.

The sarissa was a Macedonian weapon which was often fifteen-feet long.

Soldiers, in a battle formation called the Macedonia phalanx.

The phalanx with front weapons extended.

Macedonians were known as great horsemen and Macedonian Companions rode with the King.

Bronze helmets, typical of the time, were not unique to the Macedonian army.

Solidifying his position soon after taking power, Alexander marched south into Greece and freed Greek cities from Persian rule. Heading north to Gordium (the capital ofancient Phrygia), he made relatively short work of a famous legend. Whoever untied the Gordian Knot, it was said, would rule the world. Alexander approached the problem in a different way. He undid the knot by simply slashing it with his sword, then unraveling it.
His conquests were just beginning.

CHASING DARIUS III

Of all the foes Alexander wanted to best, his primary objective was Darius III. Head of the Persian Empire, Darius was used to winning his battles. But he was not accustomed to opposing adversaries whose military genius and strategy were equal to, or better than, his own.

While Alexander used the strategies and battle formations developed by his father, his ability to improvise on short notice was just one mark of his outstanding leadership.

One of his early plans was to liberate the Greek cities along the eastern Aegean Sea, on the mainland of Asia Minor. Crossing the sea with his men, Alexander's first stop was at Troy where he visited the grave of Achilles and paid homage to the gods. (That moment was artistically depicted, nearly 2000 years later, by the German painter Johann Schoenfeld.) He then turned south with his men, personally leading the Companion Cavalry.

Darius, meanwhile, was at his remote capital in Susa. Alexander's reputation was still in-the-making, and the Persian leader thought his troops could be capably managed by the governors of his western provinces. ( They were aided by a Greek mercenary, Memnon the Rhodian, who had already proved his mettle in prior Macedonian battles).

The battle at the Granicus, a river in Asia Minor, sent Darius the message that Alexander was no ordinary foe.

In 333, Alexander met Darius at the mountain pass at Issus. Although greatlyoutnumbered, the Macedonian leader took advantage of the narrow field of battle and worked it to his advantage. Not used to such brilliant strategy from his opponents, Darius was shocked by Alexander's ability. A famous mosaic, discovered in the excavations ofPompeii, graphically depicts Darius' surprise.

Believed to be based on a contemporary drawing, the Pompeii mosaic is the source of the most commonly used pictures of both Alexander and Darius. The work is now called the "Alexander Mosaic" and was originally found at the House of the Faun in Pompeii. It is maintained today at the Museo Archeologico Nazionale Napoli (the National Archeology Museum in Naples). It is believed the entire work portrays the battle of Issus.

Despite his surprise at Alexander's tactics, Darius escaped.

Thereafter, marching down the Mediterranean Coast, into Damascus, Alexandercaptured the family and war chest of the Persian ruler. As he victoriously continued down the Phoenician coast, he easily captured every city except Tyre. It took a seven-month siege before that city gave up as well.

Having secured the eastern Aegean, Alexander and his men headed to Egypt where he founded the city of Alexandria. Ultimately one of the cultural centers of the known world, it was home of the famous lighthouse (one of the wonders of the ancient world) and of theGreat Library (a center of learning until it was destroyed).

Chasing Darius was still on Alexander's mind as he left Egypt in 331. Having captured territory between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (today's Iraq), Alexander's men found the Persians at the Plain of Gaugamela.

This battle, and its aftermath, would mark a turning point for the Persian leader.

GAUGAMELA AND THE END OF DARIUS

The Macedonians (who were grossly outnumbered) wanted to attack the Persians at night, but Alexander would not take advantage of Darius' vulnerability. Believing he would ultimately defeat the Persian ruler, Philip's son wanted to face his enemy on the battlefield in the light of day. Only then, he reasoned, after a fairly fought fight, would Darius cease to wage war against the Macedonians.

The exact location of the Gaugamela battle is not clear. Many scholars think it was at Tel Gomel which is east of modern Mosul. Historical descriptions paint the scene as just east of the Tigris River. The fighting took place in October, 331 B.C.

Darius wanted to fight on a flat plain which would benefit his numerically superior and specially recruited cavalry forces. He also used scythed chariots and, before the battle, ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize the chariots' effectiveness.

Before the Battle of Gaugamela, Macedonians had never seen elephants. Darius used about fifteen of them - some scholars think the number was as high as fifty - supported by Indian chariots. Alexander, meanwhile, personally commanded the Macedonian right flank.

Alexander's men slaughtered the Persians, but once again Darius escaped - this time due, in large part, to strategic mistakes by Parmenion, Alexander's general. The former Persian emperor fled to Arbela (modern-day Arbil). (Note, however, the contemporary story of the battle, written on a cuneiform tablet, which states that Darius' troops deserted him. See, especially, note 8.)

A Macedonian had thus supplanted the Persian Emperor as a ruler in Asia. Alexander was crowned in a lavish ceremony in Arbela. Darius, still on the run, was gone from the city by the time the Macedonians arrived. Alexander sent letters to all Greek cities in Asia Minor, advising them that he had banished tyranny from the land.

The rich cities of Babylon and Susa were the next Persian towns to fall. When he reached Persepolis, capital of the Persian Empire, Alexander allowed his army to rest. Four months later, before they left Persepolis, the Macedonians burned the royal palace.

Alexander, it is said, came to regret the massive damage he ordered to Persepolis and other places in the Persian Empire. Scholars speculate that, had he lived a longer life, perhaps he would have ordered repairs.

In 330, trouble developed in Alexander's inner circle. Allegations of a plot to kill him were brought against some of his officers, including Philotas, a lifelong friend. He was shortly executed.

Months later, after a night of heavy drinking, Alexander's close friend Cleitus, son of Parmenion, hurtled insults against him. Annoyed, Alexander ran his spear throughCleitus. When he realized he'd killed his close Companion, Alexander was so upset he nearly committed suicide.

Following the rest at Persepolis, Alexander continued to pursue Darius. When he finally caught up with him, Darius was already dead. His own men had killed him in his coach.

Alexander rewarded the assassin's treachery with execution but gave Darius a royal funeral. Even so, Alexander - seen through Persian eyes - was never that "great."

Although Alexander and his men were winning victory after victory in Persia, there were major differences between Greek and Persian culture. Trying to reconcile some of those disparities, Alexander married Roxane, a Persian woman from Bactria (today's northern Afghanistan). He encouraged his men to likewise marry Persian women.

Some of Alexander's troops thought their leader had gone too far when he began to wear Persian instead of Macedonian clothing. The sheer force of his magnetic personality, however, convinced them to stick with their general.

He would next lead them to battle in India, the land of elephants.

ELEPHANTS IN WAR

Although Alexander and his troops first encountered elephants at Gaugamela, scholars believe those 15-20 animals were not a major factor in the fight. That would come later, in India, at the battle of the Hydaspes.

Horses, not accustomed to the sight of elephants and unfamiliar with their scent, can panic when they see such huge creatures. Such was also true of the Macedonian cavalry and their mounts. On the other hand, elephants - as the largest animals on earth - have no significant natural enemy except man.

What type of elephant did Alexander and his army encounter during their time in India? Then, as now, there were two types of elephants: Asian (Elephas Maximus) and African (Loxodonta Africana). Asian elephants - like those faced by Alexander - are slightly smaller than African elephants. Both species can run as fast as 25 miles (40 km) per hour for short distances. Charging elephants (click on the top-left button and be patient as this video link loads) are an unbelievable sight.

The Asian elephant (don't miss this link with nineteen different movies of Asian elephants in natural habitats), like its African relative, has a life span of about seventy years. But it is distinguished from the African elephant (there are thirty-two movie clips in this link, including a running herd on the third page) in that Elephas Maximus has much smaller ears, a flat forehead with two humps, and more toes and toenails on both its fore and hind feet. The highest point of an Asian elephant is its head; the highest point of an African elephant is its shoulders. Male and female African elephants have tusks, while female Asian elephants have none.

Because elephants eat so much, their teeth wear out. Over its lifetime, an adult typically has six different sets of teeth. When the last set wears out, the elephant could starve to death.

The population of Asian elephants today is estimated between 35,000 and 50,000 in the wild with an additional 15,000 in captivity. They are endangered and a charging Elephas Maximus has been known to trample people to death - especially when humans move near the elephants' natural environment.

It was a different story, however, on the day in 326 B.C. that Alexander and his men encountered elephants on an Indian battlefield. On that day, the animals would face a horde of fearless men intent on killing them.

VICTORY IN INDIA

Ever the brilliant strategist, Alexander realized he would need a different type of army to fight in India. No Macedonian had ever been this far east. Alexander and his men had no pre-tested battle plans to adapt. Instinctively, Alexander knew he had to cut personnel, burn excess baggage and eliminate spoils of war. Wisely, he included Persian cavalrymen in his ranks and made a plan to fight against the Indian elephants his troops would surely face.

In July of 326, when he and his men reached the Hydaspes (a river located in today’s Pakistan and now called Jhelum), they more than met their match with Porus, a renowned Indian leader. (This is the possible spot of the Indian camp.) Porus and his men foughtwith elephants which the Macedonians had first encountered at Gaugamela but had never seen in a charge.

Even with their 200 elephants, the Indians were not able to withstand the Macedonian phalanx as it approached with shields locked and sarissas extended. Robin Lane Fox describes the scene of carnage:

While archers and Agrianian javelin-men aimed at the mahouts themselves, the 3,000 veterans of the Shield Bearers swung axes at the elephants’ legs and daringly slashed at their trunks with curved scimitars. Alexander knew the weak points of an elephant and had equipped his men accordingly. (Alexander the Great, pages 359-360.)

Although the Indians were defeated, Alexander allowed Porus to continue to govern hisown land. That approach to conquered territories and leaders was one of Alexander’s trademark strengths and was a key ingredient of his astonishing success.

He suffered a major loss in the battle, however. Bucephalus, whom Alexander had ridden into every major battle throughout his career, was injured and died. (The depicted mosaic was likely created at Herculaneum, near Pompeii, between 300-250 B.C.) Grief-stricken, Alexander memorialized his horse by naming a town - Buckephalia - after him. (Scholars today are not sure where that town was located.)

Despite the loss of his horse, Alexander wanted to march to the Ganges River. His troops, wanting to return home, refused to go further. Favorably considering their position, Alexander agreed to turn back.

As he and his men traveled south, Alexander debated philosophy with the Brahmans (Indian philosophers) while his forces subdued Indian villages. His Aristotelean education must have astonished the Indians. Hundreds of years later, they remembered him as both a fearless conqueror and as a wise philosopher.

Alexander was wounded by the Malli, in January of 325, as he continued toward the mouth of the Indus River. An arrow had pierced both his breastplate and his rib cage. Rescued by his officers, Alexander did not recover overnight. Despite his injuries, the army reached the mouth of the Indus by July of 325 and, taking a westward turn, headed for home.

GOING HOME

Alexander had to make a difficult choice for the first leg of the army's homeward trek. He could keep all of his men together, and march through the Gedrosian Desert, or he could split his forces in two with some of the men, commanded by Nearchus, traveling part of the distance by sea. He chose to split up his men.

Following the land route, Alexander lost an astonishing number of his army to starvation and horrific desert conditions. Scholars believe those losses may have been as high as seventy-five percent of the men who were alive when the desert crossing began.

Reaching Carmania, Alexander and the other Gedrosian survivors recovered their strength and caught up with Nearchus and the fleet in Harmezia. Reunited, the army marched to Persis where the men rested.

Retracing their prior route, Alexander and his men once again reached Susa. There, in 324 B.C., he took a second Persian wife - Stateira - a daughter of the slain Persian Emperor, Darius III.

That same year, while Alexander and his army were in Ecbatana, Alexander lost his closest male friend and companion. Hephaistion, who very capably commanded the cavalry and with whom Alexander likely had an intimate relationship for many years, contracted a fever and died. Overwhelmed with grief, Alexander dealt with his loss by fighting another battle, this time against the Cossaens.

Throughout his years of conquest, Alexander founded many towns named after him. Those places would help to memorialize his extraordinary career. Personally, however, he was nearing the end of his own life. Unlike that of his ancestors, Alexander's death would not be violent.

ALEXANDER'S DEATH

In 323, Alexander wanted to take his army to Babylon. There were so many omens against it, however, that Alexander wondered whether he had fallen out of favor with his gods. Despite the warnings and concerns, he followed his own desire and arrived in Babylon in the late spring.

Not long after, Alexander developed a fever which lasted ten days. While some scholars think he had been poisoned, that seems unlikely given the length of his illness.

On the 7th of June, many of his men filed past his bedside although he was no longer coherent. With Alexander as their leader, these Macedonians had:

Marched more than 22,000 miles

Overthrown the Persian empire

Conquered approximately 2 million miles of territory

Established new towns throughout the journey

Never lost a battle except with the desert

On June 11th, he was gone. Squabbling over his replacement, and who should control his remains, erupted immediately. Ptolemy, Alexander's great friend and general who ultimately became Pharaoh of Egypt, had the prince of Macedonia embalmed in the Egyptian manner and his men brought him to Alexandria. There he was enshrined in a sarcophagus.

Hundreds of years later, Caesar Augustus wanted to gaze upon Alexander's body. The historian Suetonius, in his Life of Augustus, tells the story:

When Alexander's sarcophagus was brought from its shrine, Augustus gazed at the body, then laid a crown of gold on its glass case and scattered some flowers to pay his respects. When they asked if he would like to see Ptolemy too, "I wished to see a king," he replied, "I did not wish to see corpses." (The Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Life of Augustus, 18.1.)

No conqueror, before or since, has ever achieved as much. Because he failed to name a successor, however, his empire soon fell apart. Alexander thought the honor should go to the man most worthy. No one, apparently, fit that description. No one came close:

As a conqueror he came less to change than to inherit and restore; but as a man he inspired and demanded what few leaders since have dared to consider possible. (Robin Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, page 59.)

Alexander proved what has been known ever since: The magnetic force and sheer drive of one's personality is sometimes enough to change the world.

ALEXANDER'S JOURNEY IN PICTURES

Alexander took his troops to the edge of the world as he knew it. Today, many of the towns and countries known to the Macedonians still exist but are called by different names. This chapter will take you on a virtual tour to visit some of the places Alexander conquered.

Tyre - On the Mediterranean Sea, in today's Lebanon, the town is also known as Sur.

Gaza - has some Palestinian autonomy and Israeli control of its airspace andmaritime access. During ancient times Gaza, situated on the coastal highway between Egypt and Mesopotamia, was an important commercial and military center. Today the Gaza Strip has limited Palestinian autonomy and Israeli control.

Alexandria (Egypt) - Known today as both Alexandria and El Iskandariya, this still-thriving city on the Mediterranean Sea is Egypt's second-largest. It was once home to the famous library (whose destruction remains a mystery) and the Pharos Lighthouse, a wonder of the ancient world before it was destroyed by an earthquake.

Gaugamela - (Tel Gomel, Iraq) - The scene of this famous battle is somewherenortheast of the Tigris River between the northern Iraqi town of Arbela (known as Arbil today) and Mosul (Al Mawsil, Iraq).

Ecbatana - Capital of the ancient Median empire (known today as Hamadan, Iran), it is the place where Hephaestion (Alexander's close friend and leader of the Macedonian cavalry) died. It is also the place from which orders were given to killParmenion, one of Alexander's best generals.

Babylon - Situated north of Al Hillah, Iraq, this famous city was the capital of the ancient Babylonian empire, site of the Tower of Babel and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon (another wonder of the ancient world). It is also the place where Alexander died.

Persepolis - Site of awesome ruins and known today as Marvdasht, Iran (northeast of Shiraz), this city was the magnificent capital of the Persian empire until it was sacked by Alexander the Great.

Susa - This ancient city, important to Darius III and his ancestors, is east of Babylon.

Maracanda - Known today as Samarkand, Uzbekhistan, it was in a palace in this town where Alexander killed (most likely accidentally) his friend Clitus.

Oxus River - Known today as the Amu Darya River, this region, and north of it, was the place of key Alexander conquests.

Alexandria Eschate - One of the many towns Alexander founded and named after himself is now known as Khujand (on the Syr-Darya River in today's Tajikistan).

Alexandria Arachosia - Another town (from the former Persian empire) which Alexander named, it is known today as Kandahar, Afghanistan (scene of considerable fighting in the Second Gulf War).

Alexandria on the Oxus - Today this place is known as Ai Khanum, Afghanistan.

Gedrosian - In this inhospitable desert, located today in Baluchistan, Iran/Pakistan - look at the bottom of the linked map - an extraordinary number of Alexander's men died from deplorable conditions.

Paropamisus Range - Moving east, Alexander and his men reached the difficultand imposing Hindu-Kush Mountains. Snow was the least of their worries as they met, and defeated, human and natural enemies.

Hydaspes River - Known today as the Jhelum River in Pakistan, this is the site of the famous battle of the Hydaspes in which Alexander's men battled, and conquered, Porus and his elephants.

Bactra/Zariaspa - Balkh (close to the current city of Mazar-e Sharif in northernAfghanistan) is the oldest town in that country and was the capital of ancient Bactria.

Bactria/Sogdiana - This territory, so prominent in the story of Alexander, currently encompasses land in Afghanistan, Uzbekhistan, and Tajikistan. Alexander's wife, Roxane, was from Bactria.

Roxane was expecting Alexander's child when her husband died. What happened to her, and her baby boy?

THE REST OF THE STORY

After Alexander's untimely death, what happened to those closest to him? What of his wives and children? His mother? Ptolemy? Some managed to survive; others were not so fortunate. Alexander's empire thus ended as it began - with much death.

Olympias - Protecting the legacy of her son as best she could, she waged war to assure the succession of Alexander's infant son, Alexander IV. She was killed byCassander, Alexander's former friend, in 316.

Philip Arridaeus - Alexander's mentally deficient half-brother became king after Alexander died, although his regent Perdiccas ruled the empire. Olympias ordered the execution of her step-son on December 25, 317.

Barsine - Never married to Alexander, Barsine was the mother of Alexander's first child, a son named Heracles. Both were murdered by (or before) the year 309 B.C.

Roxane - The woman with whom Alexander fell in love "at sight" (according to the ancient writer Arrian of Nicomedia whose history, Anabasis of Alexander, is a key source of information regarding Alexander) was from Bactria. After her husband's death, Roxane thought the deal she made would give her son, Alexander IV, the throne when he was old enough (in 305). That agreement, however, merely insured their deaths. Cassander order the executions of both.

Statira - At Alexander's death, his Persian wife Statira (daughter of Darius III and also called Barsine) was a threat to Roxane. (She must have been expecting a child.) Consistent with the treatment of other such threats, Roxane had Statira murdered in 320.

Ptolemy - Alexander's friend not only became governor of Egypt after Alexander died, he began a dynasty of Pharaohs which lasted until Rome annexed Egypt in 31 BC. Unusual for antiquity, the Ptolemaic Empire also permitted women to rule. Cleopatra, of Julius Caesar/Marc Anthony fame, was a descendant of Ptolemy.

Alexander, the man with whom we began this journey, remains famous thousands of years after his death. His body, once carefully preserved for all time and still available "for show" in 360 A.D., was likely lost during late-empire riots in Alexandria.

CONCLUSION

Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great from the Greek "to defend, help", "man"), was a king of Macedon, a state in northern ancient Greece. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16. By the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from the Ionian Sea to the Himalayas. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of history's most successful commanders.

Alexander succeeded his father, Philip II of Macedon, to the throne in 336 BC after Philip was assassinated. Upon Philip's death, Alexander inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. He was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father's military expansion plans. In 334 BC, he invaded Persian-ruled Asia Minor and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He subsequently overthrew the Persian King Darius III and conquered the entirety of the Persian Empire. At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.

Seeking to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea", he invaded India in 326 BC, but was eventually forced to turn back at the demand of his troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs.

Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion his conquests engendered. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and myth of Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics.

References:

1.       http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great

2.       http://www.awesomestories.com

3.       http://secondary-curriculum.blogspot.com/2012/12/how-to-prepare-term-paper.html